World War II Benito Mussolini

1 world war ii

1.1 gathering storm
1.2 war declared
1.3 path defeat
1.4 dismissed , arrested
1.5 italian social republic ( salò republic )

world war ii
the gathering storm

mussolini in portrait

by late 1930s, mussolini s obsession demography led him conclude britain , france finished powers, , germany , italy destined rule europe if no other reason demographic strength. mussolini stated belief declining birth rates in france absolutely horrifying , british empire doomed because one-quarter of british population on 50. such, mussolini believed alliance germany preferable alignment britain , france better allied strong instead of weak. mussolini saw international relations social darwinian struggle between virile nations high birth rates destined destroy effete nations low birth rates. mussolini believed france weak , old nation french weekly death rate exceeded birthrate 2,000, , had no interest in alliance france. such extent of mussolini s belief italy s destino rule mediterranean because of italy s high birth rate mussolini neglected of serious planning , preparations necessary war western powers. arguments held mussolini full alignment berlin awareness of italy s economic , military weakness, meaning required further time rearm, , desire use easter accords of april 1938 way of splitting britain france. military alliance germany opposed existing looser political alliance reich under anti-comintern pact (which had no military commitments) end chance of britain implementing easter accords. easter accords in turn intended mussolini allow italy take on france alone sufficiently improving anglo-italian relations london presumably remain neutral in event of franco-italian war (mussolini had imperial designs on tunisia, , had support in country. ). in turn, easter accords intended britain win italy away germany. in 8 november 1938 entry of diary count ciano, mussolini s son-in-law , foreign minister, summed dictator s foreign policy objectives regarding france: djibouti have ruled in common france; tunisia, more or less similar regime; corsica, italian , never frenchified , therefore under our direct control, border @ river var. savoy, not historically or geographically italian , mussolini claimed not interested in it. on 30 november 1938, mussolini invited french ambassador andré françois-poncet attend opening of italian chamber of deputies, during assembled deputies, @ cue, began demonstrate loudly against france, shouting italy should annex tunis, nice, corsica, savoy! , followed deputies marching street carrying signs demanding france turn on tunisia, savoy, , corsica italy. french premier Édouard daladier promptly rejected italian demands territorial concessions, , of winter of 1938-39, france , italy on verge of war.

in january 1939, british prime minister neville chamberlain visited rome, during visit, mussolini learned though britain wanted better relations italy, , prepared make concessions, not sever ties france sake of improved anglo-italian relationship. that, mussolini grew more interested in german offer of military alliance, had first been made in may 1938. in february 1939, mussolini gave speech before fascist grand council, during proclaimed belief state s power proportional maritime position , italy prisoner in mediterranean , more populous , powerful italy becomes, more suffer imprisonment. bars of prison corsica, tunisia, malta, cyprus: sentinels of prison gibraltar , suez .

the new course not without critics. on 21 march 1939 during meeting of fascist grand council, italo balbo accused mussolini of licking hitler s boots , blasted duce s pro-german foreign policy leading italy disaster , noted opening britain still existed , not inevitable italy had ally germany. though many gerarchi balbo not keen on closer relations berlin, mussolini s control of foreign-policy machinery meant dissidence counted little. mussolini had leading position within fascist party, did not totally dominate balbo s attack on mussolini licking hitler s boots , demand opening britain pursued @ meeting of fascist grand council greek historian aristotle kallis called mussolini s relatively restrained response show – nazi party had nothing equivalent fascist grand council , inconceivable 1 of hitler s gauleiters attack him in same way gerarchi balbo criticized mussolini. in april 1939, mussolini ordered italian invasion of albania. italy defeated albania within 5 days, forcing king zog flee , setting period of albania under italy. until may 1939, axis had not been entirely official, during month pact of steel treaty signed outlining friendship , alliance between germany , italy, signed each of foreign ministers. pact of steel offensive , defensive military alliance, though mussolini had signed treaty after receiving promise germans there no war next 3 years. italy s king victor emanuel iii wary of pact, favoring more traditional italian allies france, , fearful of implications of offensive military alliance, in effect meant surrendering control on questions of war , peace hitler.

hitler intent on invading poland, though galeazzo ciano warned lead war allies. hitler dismissed ciano s comment, predicting instead britain , other western countries down, , suggested italy should invade yugoslavia. offer tempting mussolini, @ stage world war disaster italy armaments situation building italian empire far lean. significantly, victor emmanuel had demanded neutrality in dispute. when world war ii in europe began on 1 september 1939 german invasion of poland eliciting response of united kingdom , france declaring war on germany, italy did not become involved in conflict. however, when germans incarcerated 183 professors jagiellonian university in kraków on 6 november 1939, mussolini intervened hitler against action, leading freeing of 101 poles.

war declared

cover of 13 may 1940 issue of newsweek magazine, headlining: il duce: key man of mediterranean .

as world war ii began, ciano , viscount halifax holding secret phone conversations. british wanted italy on side against germany had been in world war i. french government opinion more geared towards action against italy; eager attack italy in libya. in september 1939, france swung opposite extreme, offering discuss issues italy, french unwilling discuss corsica, nice , savoy, mussolini did not answer. historian alexander gibson stated allies italy join war on axis side, , tried provoke italy fighting while still unprepared. in late november 1939, adolf hitler declared: long duce lives, 1 can rest assured italy seize every opportunity achieve imperialistic aims.

convinced war over, german victory looking @ point, mussolini decided enter war on axis side. accordingly, italy declared war on britain , france on 10 june 1940. mussolini regarded war against britain , france life-or-death struggle between opposing ideologies — fascism , masonic, democratic, capitalist world – describing war struggle of fertile , young people against sterile people moving sunset; struggle between 2 centuries , 2 ideas , , logical development of our revolution .

italy joined germans in battle of france, fighting fortified alpine line @ border. eleven days later, france , germany signed armistice. included in italian-controlled france of nice , other southeastern counties. meanwhile, in africa, mussolini s italian east africa forces attacked british in sudan, kenya , british somaliland colonies, in become known east african campaign. british somaliland conquered , became part of italian east africa on 3 august 1940, , there italian advances in sudan , kenya.

path defeat

mussolini in official portrait

in september 1940, italian tenth army commanded general rodolfo graziani , crossed italian libya egypt, british forces located; become western desert campaign. advances successful, italians stopped @ sidi barrani waiting logistic supplies catch up. on 24 october 1940, mussolini sent italian air corps belgium, took part in blitz until january 1941. in october, mussolini sent italian forces greece, starting greco-italian war. after initial success, backfired greek counterattack proved relentless, resulting in italy losing one-quarter of albania.

events in africa had changed 1941 operation compass had forced italians libya, causing high losses in italian army. in east african campaign, attack mounted against italian forces. despite putting resistance, overwhelmed @ battle of keren, , italian defense started crumble final defeat in battle of gondar. when addressing italian public on events, mussolini open situation, saying call bread bread , wine wine, , when enemy wins battle useless , ridiculous seek, english in incomparable hypocrisy, deny or diminish it. part of comment in relation earlier success italians had in africa, before being defeated allied force later. in danger of losing control of italian possessions in north africa, germany sent afrika korps support italy. meanwhile, operation marita took place in yugoslavia end greco-italian war, resulting in axis victory , occupation of greece italy , germany.

general mario robotti, commander of italian 11th division in slovenia , croatia, issued order in line directive received mussolini in june 1942: not opposed (sic) slovenes being imprisoned , replaced italians. in other words, should take steps ensure political , ethnic frontiers coincide .

mussolini first learned of operation barbarossa after invasion of soviet union had begun on 22 june 1941, , not asked hitler involve himself. mussolini took initiative in ordering italian army corps head eastern front, hoped italy might score easy victory restore fascist regime s luster, had been damaged defeats in greece , north africa. mussolini told council of ministers of 5 july worry germany might defeat soviet union before italians arrived. @ meeting hitler in august, mussolini offered , hitler accepted commitment of further italian troops fight soviet union. heavy losses suffered italians on eastern front, service extremely unpopular owing widespread view not italy s fight, did damage mussolini s prestige italian people. after japanese attack on pearl harbor, declared war on united states on 11 december 1941. piece of evidence regarding mussolini s response attack on pearl harbor comes diary of foreign minister ciano:

a night telephone call ribbentrop. overjoyed japanese attack on america. happy happy him, though not sure final advantages of has happened. 1 thing certain, america enter conflict , conflict long able realize potential forces. morning told king had been pleased event. ended admitting that, in long run, may right. mussolini happy, too. long time has favored definite clarification of relations between america , axis.

dismissed , arrested


marshal pietro badoglio succeeded mussolini prime minister.

by 1942, italy s military position had become untenable. after defeat @ el alamein @ end of 1942, axis troops had retreat defeated in tunisia campaign in 1943. italy suffered major setbacks on eastern front well. allied invasion of sicily brought war nation s doorstep. italian home front in bad shape allied bombings taking toll. factories on italy brought virtual standstill because raw materials, such coal , oil, lacking. additionally, there chronic shortage of food, , food available being sold @ confiscatory prices. mussolini s once-ubiquitous propaganda machine lost grip on people; large number of italians turned vatican radio or radio london more accurate news coverage. discontent came head in march 1943 wave of labor strikes in industrial north—the first large-scale strikes since 1925. in march, of major factories in milan , turin stopped production secure evacuation allowances workers families. german presence in italy had sharply turned public opinion against mussolini; example, when allies invaded sicily, majority of public there welcomed them liberators.

earlier in april 1943, mussolini had begged hitler make separate peace stalin , send german troops west guard against expected allied invasion of italy. mussolini feared losses in tunisia , north africa, next logical step dwight eisenhower s armies come across mediterranean , attack italian peninsula. within few days of allied landings on sicily in july 1943, obvious mussolini s army on brink of collapse. led hitler summon mussolini meeting in feltre on 19 july 1943. time, mussolini shaken stress no longer stand hitler s boasting. mood darkened further when same day, allies bombed rome—the first time city had ever been target of enemy bombing.

by point, prominent members of mussolini s government had turned against him. among them grandi , ciano. several of colleagues close revolt, , mussolini forced summon grand council of fascism on 24 july 1943. first time body had met since start of war. when announced germans thinking of evacuating south, grandi launched blistering attack on him. grandi moved resolution asking king resume full constitutional powers was, in effect, vote of no confidence in mussolini. motion carried 19–8 margin. despite sharp rebuke, mussolini showed work next day usual. allegedly viewed grand council merely advisory body , did not think vote have substantive effect. afternoon, summoned royal palace king victor emmanuel iii, had been planning oust mussolini earlier. when mussolini tried tell king meeting, victor emmanuel cut him off , told him being replaced marshal pietro badoglio. after mussolini left palace, arrested carabinieri on king s orders.

mussolini rescued german troops prison in campo imperatore on 12 september 1943.

by time, discontent mussolini intense when news of downfall announced on radio, there no resistance of sort. people rejoiced because thought meant war over. in effort conceal location germans, mussolini moved around before being imprisoned @ campo imperatore, mountain resort in abruzzo isolated. badoglio announced war continue in alliance germany. badoglio keeping appearance of loyalty axis, dissolved fascist party 2 days after taking on , began negotiating armistice allies, signed on 3 september 1943. announcement 5 days later threw italy chaos; german troops rushed in take on italy in operation achse. germans approached rome, badoglio , king fled rome, leaving italian army without orders. after period of anarchy, italy declared war on nazi germany on 13 october 1943 malta; thousands of troops supplied fight against germans, others refused switch sides , had joined germans. badoglio government held political truce leftist partisans sake of italy , rid land of nazis.

italian social republic ( salò republic )


italian social republic (rsi) of 1943 in yellow , green. green areas german military operational zones under direct german administration.

two months after mussolini had been dismissed , arrested, rescued prison @ hotel campo imperatore in gran sasso raid on 12 september 1943 special fallschirmjäger (paratroopers) unit , waffen-ss commandos led major otto-harald mors; otto skorzeny present. rescue saved mussolini being turned on allies, per armistice. hitler had made plans arrest king, crown prince umberto, badoglio, , rest of government , restore mussolini power in rome, government s escape south foiled plans.

three days following rescue in gran sasso raid, mussolini taken germany meeting hitler in rastenburg @ east prussian headquarters. despite public professions of support, hitler shocked mussolini s disheveled , haggard appearance unwillingness go after men in rome overthrew him. feeling had blunt edges of nazi repression, mussolini agreed set new regime, italian social republic (italian: repubblica sociale italiana, rsi), informally known salò republic because of administration town of salò settled 11 days after rescue germans. mussolini s new regime faced numerous territorial losses: in addition losing italian lands held allies , badoglio s government, provinces of bolzano, belluno , trento placed under german administration in operational zone of alpine foothills, while provinces of udine, gorizia, trieste, pola (now pula), fiume (now rijeka) , ljubljana (lubiana in italian) incorporated german operational zone of adriatic littoral.

mussolini inspecting fortifications, 1944

in addition, german army occupied dalmatian provinces of split (spalato) , kotor (cattaro), subsequently annexed croatian fascist regime. italy s gains in greece , albania lost germany, exception of italian aegean islands, remained nominally under rsi rule. mussolini opposed territorial reductions of italian state , told associates:

i not here renounce square meter of state territory. go war this. , rebel against this. italian flag flew, italian flag return. , has not been lowered, here, no 1 have lowered. have said these things führer.

a rain-soaked benito mussolini reviewing adolescent soldiers in northern italy, late 1944.

for year , half, mussolini lived in gargnano on lake garda in lombardy. although insisted in public in full control, knew little more puppet ruler under protection of german liberators—for intents , purposes, gauleiter of lombardy. after yielding pressures hitler , remaining loyal fascists formed government of republic of salò, mussolini helped orchestrate series of executions of of fascist leaders had betrayed him @ last meeting of fascist grand council. 1 of executed son-in-law, galeazzo ciano. head of state , minister of foreign affairs italian social republic, mussolini used of time write memoirs. along autobiographical writings of 1928, these writings combined , published da capo press rise , fall. in interview in january 1945 madeleine mollier, few months before captured , executed italian anti-fascist partisans, stated flatly: 7 years ago, interesting person. now, little more corpse. continued:

yes, madam, finished. star has fallen. have no fight left in me. work , try, yet know farce... await end of tragedy and – strangely detached everything – not feel more actor. feel last of spectators.