United States rule (1898–present) History of Puerto Rico

1 united states rule (1898–present)

1.1 military government
1.2 foraker act of 1900
1.3 economic , social modernization
1.4 politics
1.5 jones act of 1917
1.6 establishment of commonwealth
1.7 statehood issue
1.8 hurricanes

united states rule (1898–present)
military government

raising flag on san juan, october 18, 1898.

after ratification of treaty of paris of 1898, puerto rico came under military control of united states of america. brought significant changes: name of island changed porto rico (it changed puerto rico in 1932) , currency changed puerto rican peso united states dollar. freedom of assembly, speech, press, , religion decreed , eight-hour day government employees established. public school system begun , u.s. postal service extended island. highway system enlarged, , bridges on more important rivers constructed. government lottery abolished, cockfighting forbidden, , centralized public health service established. health conditions poor @ time, high rates of infant mortality , numerous endemic diseases.

the 45-star flag, used united states during invasion of puerto rico, official flag of puerto rico 1899 1908

the beginning of military government marked creation of new political groups. partido republicano (republican party) , american federal party created, led josé celso barbosa , luis muñoz rivera, respectively. both groups supported annexation united states solution colonial situation. island s creole sugar planters, had suffered declining prices, hoped u.s. rule them gain access north american market.

disaster struck in august 1899, when 2 hurricanes ravaged island: 1899 san ciriaco hurricane on august 8, , unnamed hurricane on august 22. approximately 3,400 people died in floods , thousands left without shelter, food, or work. effects on economy devastating: millions of dollars lost due destruction of majority of sugar , coffee plantations.

foraker act of 1900


the first supreme court of puerto rico, established in 1900

the military government in puerto rico short lived; disbanded on april 2, 1900, when u.s. congress enacted foraker act (also known organic act of 1900), sponsored senator joseph b. foraker. act established civil government , free commerce between island , united states. structure of insular government included governor appointed president of united states, executive council (the equivalent of senate), , legislature 35 members, though executive veto required two-thirds vote override. first appointed civil governor, charles herbert allen, inaugurated on may 1, 1900. on june 5, president william mckinley appointed executive council included 5 puerto rican members , 6 u.s. members. act established creation of judicial system headed supreme court of puerto rico , allowed puerto rico send resident commissioner representative congress. puerto rico department of education subsequently formed, headed martin grove brumbaugh (later governor of pennsylvania). teaching conducted entirely in english spanish treated special subject. both languages, however, official on island. on november 6, first elections under foraker act held , on december 3, first legislative assembly took office. on march 14, 1901, federico degetau took office first resident commissioner puerto rico in washington. foraker act, (with influence of fearful progressive) placed limit of 500 acres (2.0 km) amount of land 1 person allowed own. part of act, however, not enforced.

economic , social modernization

the american program included building modern economic infrastructure included roads, ports, electric power systems, , telephones , telegraphs, hospitals , programs develop agriculture.

sugar mill owners between period of 1898 , 1945 turned sugar mills monocultural plantations in response economy of 20th century. sugar mills , tobacco, cigar, , cigarette factories gained united states attention due fast productions , large amount of produce. women , children primary workers within these industries. puerto rican trades went united states 95% of time. 1914, coffee production once steady failed.

the sugar industry rose along economy. puerto rican mill owners , french , spanish residents took united states corporate capital. united states had 4 operations part of united sugar refineries owned cuba , dominican republic. in 1870, congress made tariff wall in order domestic producers of sugar. had effect of putting sugar producers bankruptcy. united states acquired jurisdiction on puerto rico there free trade between two. capital flowed puerto rico effect of modernizing sugar processing mills due united states influence.

the united states had formed tobacco trust had basis rules cigarettes, puerto ricans had issues when came brand , local marketing. tobacco trust controlled cigarettes , cigar production controlled tobacco leaf. there fall of industry due exports.

during time when sugar not going coffee in late 1800s. changed coffee production started when export production replaced farming. people lost land , properties, amount of land disposal shrank , people hoped europe take part in trade of coffee, did not. coffee makers not happy them being controlled united states. in 1933 of people worked families instead of individuals due 90 percent of output due them being poor.

in 1899, united states took on rich lands influenced puerto rico s economy made puerto rico state more capitalized in operation. there no limit in treads united states, sugar industry had expanded , irrigation payments. taxes hollander act taxing 2 percent on rural property in 1901. made people angry , people protested. people able bring tax down 1 percent still forced landowners sell land.

the american administrators put great emphasis on developing modern school system. english-language instruction provoked fears of cultural genocide. effort generated resistance teachers, parents, politicians, intellectuals , others. resistance imposition of english part of larger effort resist invasion , colonization. schools became important arena cultural identity, promoted middle-class local teachers rejected idea of creating hispanic yankees speaking english, , instead sought have autonomous puerto rican culture incorporated best of modern pedagogy , learning, respect island s hispanic language , cultural traditions. u.s. officials underestimated place of spanish in puerto rican culture. 1898 spanish firmly rooted in population. spanish 1 of leading international languages, through puerto ricans in contact world. language in culture communicated. level of opposition imposition of english such led failure of u.s. language policies in puerto rico.

one shock came in 1935, however, when new york study found puerto rican schoolchildren in new york city deficient in basic skills. after 39 years of imposition of english @ university of puerto rico, spanish became preferred language of instruction in 1942, , in public schools vernacular of puerto ricans became language of teaching , learning in 1940–50.

puerto rico s agricultural economy transformed sugar monoculture economy, supplemented gardens local consumption. american sugar companies had advantage on local sugar plantation owners. local plantation owner finance operations @ local banks offered high interest rates, compared low rates american companies received commercial banks in wall street. factor, plus tariffs imposed, forced many of local sugar plantation owners go bankrupt or sell holdings more powerful sugar companies. sugar considered 1 of few strategic commodities in united states not self-sufficient.

politics

an economically evolving puerto rico called new advancement in political status. powerful, innovative puerto rican leaders including luis muñoz rivera, josé de diego, rosendo matienzo cintrón, manuel zeno gandía, luis lloréns torres, eugenio benítez castaño, , pedro franceschi contributed rise of multiple successful political parties. however, birth of multiple political groups led diversion of island s interests: uniting statehood us, becoming territory commonwealth, or declaring independence altogether. in 1900, partido federal (federal party) formed during military rule of island after spanish–american war. formed luis munoz rivera , other members of autonomist party. partido federal favored immediate transformation of puerto rico organized unincorporated territory , join statehood. partido obrero socialista de puerto rico (socialist labor party of puerto rico) founded santiago iglesias pantin. overtime partido obrero socialista de puerto rico in favor of statehood us. partido federal campaigned assimilation united states , wanted develop prosperously best interests under new administration. wanted integrate law , government. plan become territory , have representation through delegate , become state no restrictions. partido obrero socialista de puerto rico did not advocate independence. instead party leader, santiago iglesias pantin, advocated statehood , change in economic policies influenced practice in founding federación regional de trabajadores (regional workers federation) , labor newspaper ensayo obrero. party based on principles of socialist labor party of america , received support american colonial authorities. after dissolution of federal party, luis muñoz rivera , josé de diego founded partido unionista de puerto rico (unionist party of puerto rico) in 1904. unionist party of puerto rico aimed secure “the right of puerto rico assert own personality, either through statehood or independence.” beginning of partido independentista, independence party, in 1909. rosendo matienzo cintrón, manuel zeno gandía, luis lloréns torres, eugenio benítez castaño, , pedro franceschi founded party first political party agenda independence of puerto rico. change occurred during year party founded. olmsted amendment changed foraker act, designed switch puerto rican government military 1 government ran civilians. instead, olmsted act called government managed solely under executive branch.

the puerto rican status quo again altered in 1909 when foraker act, replaced military rule civilian government in puerto rico, modified olmsted amendment. amendment placed supervision of puerto rican affairs in jurisdiction of executive department designated president of united states. in 1914, first puerto rican officers, martín travieso (secretary) , manuel v. domenech (commissioner of interiors), assigned executive cabinet. allowed native puerto ricans hold majority in council, consisted of 5 members selected president, first time in history. 1915 delegation puerto rico, accompanied governor arthur yager, traveled washington, d.c. ask congress grant island more autonomy. luis muñoz rivera became 1 of founders of union party in puerto rico against foraker act. delegation , speeches made resident commissioner muñoz rivera in congress, coupled political , economic interests, led drafting of jones–shafroth act of 1917 (jones act).

jones act of 1917

the jones act made replace foraker act, allowed free entry of puerto rican goods u.s. market. jones act approved u.s. congress on december 5, 1916, , signed law president woodrow wilson on march 2, 1917. although extended citizenship puerto ricans, wasn t welcomed. partido union had opposed extension of u.s. citizenship in 1912 if didn t make puerto rico state. if didn t become state, u.s. citizenship interpreted attempt block independence of puerto ricans. them, promise of citizenship didn t affirm promise of statehood, excluded considerations of independence.

the act made puerto rico organized unincorporated united states territory, colony. puerto ricans collectively given restricted u.s. citizenship. implied puerto ricans residing on island did not have full american citizenship rights, such right vote president of united states. u.s. citizens, conscription extended island. few months later, 20,000 puerto rican soldiers sent united states army during first world war. act divided governmental powers 3 branches: executive (appointed president of united states), legislative, , judicial branch. legislative branch composed of senate, consisting of nineteen members, , house of representatives, consisting of 39 members. legislators freely elected puerto rican people. bill of rights, established elections held every 4 years, created.

though act created more structured government island, united states congress still held right veto or amend bills , laws passed territorial legislature. in addition veto power, united states prevent enforcing of actions taken legislature. act stated president of united states appoint members of puerto rico’s legislative branch, directors of 6 major government departments- agriculture , labor, health, interior, , treasury(with advisement of congress) , attorney general , commissioner of education. act made english official language of puerto rican courts, government, , public education systems.

destruction left hurricane in mayaguez, puerto rico 1918

on october 11, 1918, earthquake occurred, approximate magnitude of 7.3 on richter scale, accompanied tsunami reaching 6.1 metres (20 ft) in height. epicenter located northwest of aguadilla in mona passage (between puerto rico , dominican republic). earthquake caused great damage , loss of life @ mayagüez, , lesser damage along west coast. tremors continued several weeks. approximately 116 casualties reported resulting earthquake , 40 tsunami.

some politicians in favor of puerto rico becoming incorporated state of u.s., while others wanted puerto rico gain independence united states. amid debate, nationalist group emerged encouraged radical activism puerto rico become independent united states. consequence of jones act , establishment of elections, new political party, partido nacionalista de puerto rico (puerto rican nationalist party), founded on september 17, 1922. party used advocated massive demonstrations , protests against political activity not going result in puerto rico gaining independence. in 1924, pedro albizu campos joined party , later became vice president in 1927. in 1930, albizu elected president. being president, instilled many of political ideologies party composed heavily of anticolonial politics , feelings of contempt against united states. in 1930s, nationalist party, led president pedro albizu campos failed attract sufficient electoral support , withdrew political participation. increased conflict arose between adherents , authorities. on october 20, 1935 albizu testified against dean of university of puerto rico, claiming wanted americanize institution. 4 days later student assembly gathered , declared albizu persona non grata, forbidding him speak there. albizu later arrested , convicted of conspiring overthrow american government. arrested breaking smith act of 1940 declared against law teach or part of group encouraged overthrow of american government.

on october 23, 1935, student assembly planned held @ university of puerto rico-río piedras campus. officials asked governor blanton winship provide armed police officers campus, forestall possible violence. colonel elisha francis riggs, u.s. appointed police chief, commanded forces. couple of police officers spotted believed suspicious-looking automobile , asked driver ramón s. pagán license. pagán secretary of nationalist party @ time. accompanied in car friends , other nationalist party members pedro quiñones , eduardo rodríguez. police officers asked pagán drive police station on calle arzuaga, block station, police surrounded vehicle , fired guns car. pagán, quiñones, , rodríguez not armed weapons. josé santiago barea, nationalist, approaching car when police began shooting. resulted in death of 4 nationalists , 1 bystander.

in retaliation río piedras massacre @ university of rio piedras, on february 23, 1936, nationalists hiram rosado , elias beauchamp killed colonel e. francis riggs in san juan. taken custody killed policemen , officers while being held @ san juan headquarters. rosado , beauchamp declared heroes nationalist party president, pedro albizu-campos. shortly after, san juan federal court had albizu arrested incitement of discontent. after being found innocent in jury 7 puerto ricans , 2 north americans, judge ordered new jury had ten north americans , 2 puerto ricans, found him guilty. on july 31, 1936, albizu , several other nationalists such juan antonio corretjer , clemente soto vélez convicted of being associated riggs murder. sentenced 6 10 years in federal prison in united states.

picture journalist carlos torres morales of ponce massacre, march 21, 1937

on march 21, 1937, peaceful march organized nationalist party, under pedro alibizu campos, commemorate ending of slavery in puerto rico in 1873 governing spanish national assembly. police, under orders of general blanton winship, us-appointed colonial governor of puerto rico, opened fire @ peaceful puerto rican nationalist party parade, known ponce massacre : 20 unarmed people (including 2 policemen) killed, wounded persons ranging between 100–200. occurred because head of police force in juana díaz, guillermo soldevila, raised whip , struck chest of tomás lopez de victoria, captain of cadet corps, , told him stop march. result, police officer, armando martinez, ran corner in front of nationalist council , fired once air. prompted many others fire arms.

on july 25, 1938, little on year after ponce massacre, governor winship ordered military parade take place in city of ponce in celebration of american invasion of puerto rico. such celebrations customarily took place in san juan, capital of colonial government. @ parade, attempt made assassinate winship, allegedly members of nationalist party. first time in puerto rico s long history attempt had been made against governor. although winship escaped unscathed, total of 36 people wounded, including colonel in national guard , nationalist gunman.

establishment of commonwealth

from 1948 1952 felony display puerto rican flag in public; flag permitted flown on island flag of united states.

in years after world war ii, social, political , economical changes began take place have continued shape island s character today. late 1940s brought beginning of major migration continental united states, new york city. main reasons undesirable economic situation brought great depression, strong recruiting u.s. armed forces personnel , u.s. companies workers.

in 1946 president truman appointed resident commissioner jesús t. piñero serve island governor; first puerto rican appointed position. on june 10, 1948, piñero signed infamous ley de la mordaza (gag law). law 53, officially known, passed puerto rican legislature presided luis muñoz marín on may 21, 1948. law made illegal display puerto rican flag, sing nationalist song, talk independence or campaign independence of island. resembled anti-communist smith law passed in united states.

the u.s. congress passed act allowing puerto ricans elect governor, , first elections under act held on november 2, 1948. luis muñoz marín, president of puerto rican senate, campaigned , became first democratically elected governor of island on january 2, 1949.

el imparcial headline: aviation (us) bombs utuado during nationalist revolts

on july 4, 1950, president harry s. truman signed public act 600, allowed puerto ricans draft own constitution establishing own internal government structures; renamed body politic commonwealth of puerto rico. in english , estado libre asociado de puerto rico in spanish. (the commonwealth designation similar bodies politic of states of massachusetts, pennsylvania, virginia , kentucky.) once in office, muñoz marin did not pursue puerto rican independence, angered of constituency.

on october 30, 1950, group of puerto rican nationalists, led pedro albizu campos, staged several local attacks, known puerto rican nationalist party revolts of 1950s, successful of known jayuya uprising. revolts included attack on governor s mansion, la fortaleza. puerto rican military forces called in put down jayuya uprising. 2 days later, 2 nationalists new york tried storm in blair house, president s temporary residence, assassinate united states president harry s. truman. these acts led muñoz crack down on puerto rican nationalists , advocates of puerto rican independence. actions both muñoz , united states government later determined infringing on constitutional rights.

in february 1952, constitution of puerto rico approved voters in referendum, , federal law approved it, subject striking sec. 20 of article ii , adding text sec. 3 of article vii of final draft, amendments ratified in november of year. island organized estado libre asociado (commonwealth of puerto rico). same year marked first time flag of puerto rico publicly displayed, after having been criminalized in 1948 popular democratic party-controlled government. in march 1954, 4 nationalists fired guns visitors gallery in house of representatives @ capitol, protest lack of puerto rican independence, wounding several persons.

luis a. ferré founded estadistas unidos (united statehooders), organization campaign statehood in 1967 plebiscite, after statehood republican party chose boycott vote. on july 23, 1967, first plebiscite on political status of puerto rico held. voters affirmed continuation of commonwealth status (commonwealth–60.4% statehood–39%; independence–0.6%). other plebiscites have been held determine political status of puerto rico, in 1993 , in 1998. both times, although smaller margins, status quo has been upheld. in 2012, majority voted reject current status , voted become state. referendum controversial opponents had tried persuade people abstain voting altogether , argued vote invalid.

as u.s. constitution empowers congress admit new states, referendum taken sign of popular opinion. legally island remains territory of united states, under congressional supervision. after 1967 plebiscite, partido nuevo progresista (new progressive party or new party progress) organized under ferré s leadership. party campaigned puerto rico become 51st state of union. luis a. ferré elected governor on november 5, 1968, 43.6% of vote, first time pro-statehood governor had received plurality. new progressive party, popular democratic party, , independence party constitute current political status-based registered political parties in island.

puerto rico continues struggle define political status. though puerto rico granted right draft own constitution, approved conditionally congress on july 3, 1952, remains unincorporated organized territory of united states. ambiguous status continues spark political debates dominate puerto rican society.

statehood issue

on july 23, 1967, first plebiscite on political status of puerto rico held. voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of commonwealth status (with 60.4% voting remain commonwealth, 39% voting work towards statehood. other referendums have been subsequently held determine political status of puerto rico, in 1993 , in 1998. in 3 of these, status quo has been upheld; there no strong feeling in favor of independence or statehood.

the puerto rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on november 6, 2012. result 54% majority of ballots cast against continuation of island s territorial political status, , in favor of new status. of votes new status, 61.1% majority chose statehood. far successful referendum statehood advocates. in earlier referenda, votes statehood matched equally votes remaining american territory, remainder independence. support u.s. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum. because there 500,000 blank ballots in 2012 referendum, creating confusion voters true desire, congress decided ignore vote.

the puerto rican status referendum, 2017 occurred on june 11, 2017. while referendum have options of statehood , independence/free association, letter trump administration recommended add commonwealth, current status, in plebiscite. option had been removed plebiscite in response results of plebiscite in 2012 asked whether remain in current status , no had won. however, trump administration cited changes in demographics during past 5 years add option once again. amendments plebiscite bill adopted making ballot wording changes requested u.s. department of justice, adding current territorial status option.

governor ricardo rosselló in favor of statehood develop economy , solve our 500-year-old colonial dilemma ... colonialism not option .... it’s civil rights issue ... 3.5 million citizens seeking absolute democracy, told news media. benefits of statehood include additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, right vote in presidential elections, higher social security , medicare benefits, , right government agencies , municipalities file bankruptcy. latter prohibited.

regardless of outcome of referendum, action united states congress necessary implement changes status of puerto rico under territorial clause of united states constitution.

hurricanes

while eye of category 5 hurricane irma passed north of island on september 5, 2017, winds sufficient leave 1 million citizens without power. on september 20, 2017, hurricane maria hit island directly, destroying infrastructure including homes, electricity, potable water supplies, transportation, , communication.