Later Prehistory History of England

view of ramparts of developed hillfort of maiden castle, dorset, today

the bronze age begins around 2500 bc first appearance of bronze objects in archaeological record. coincides appearance of characteristic beaker culture; again unknown whether brought folk movement or cultural assimilation, , again may mixture of both. bronze age sees shift of emphasis communal individual, , rise prominence of increasingly powerful elites, power enshrined in control of flow of precious resources, manipulate tin , copper high-status bronze objects such swords , axes, , prowess hunters , warriors. settlement became increasingly permanent , intensive. towards end of period, numerous examples of extremely fine metalwork begin found deposited in rivers, presumably ritual reasons , perhaps reflecting progressive shift of emphasis away sky , earth, rising population increasingly put land under greater pressure. england largely becomes in period bound atlantic trade system, created of cultural continuum on large part of western europe. possible celtic languages developed or spread england part of system; end of iron age @ least there ample evidence spoken across whole of england, western parts of britain.

the iron age conventionally said begin around 800 bc. atlantic system had time collapsed, although england maintained contacts across channel france, hallstatt culture became widespread across country. overall picture of continuity suggests not accompanied substantial movement of population; crucially, single hallstatt burial known britain, , here evidence inconclusive. on whole burials largely disappear across england, dead being disposed of in way archaeologically invisible: excarnation cited possibility. hillforts known since late bronze age, huge number constructed in period 600–400 bc, particularly in south; after 400 new ones largely cease built , large number cease regularly inhabited, while smaller number of others become more , more intensively occupied, suggesting degree of regional centralisation. around time earliest mentions of britain begin appear in annals of history. first historical mention of region massaliote periplus, sailing manual merchants thought date 6th century bc, , pytheas of massilia wrote of exploratory voyage island around 325 bc. both of these texts lost; although quoted later writers, not enough survives inform archaeological interpretation significant degree.

contact continent @ lower point in bronze age, although not insignificant. continental goods continued make way england throughout period, although possible hiatus around 350–150 bc. numerous armed invasions of hordes of migrating celts no longer considered realistic, although there 2 known invasions. around 300 bc, appears group gaulish parisii tribe took on east yorkshire, establishing highly distinctive arras culture; , around 150–100 bc, groups of belgae began control significant parts of south. these invasions have constituted movements of relatively small number of people established warrior elite @ top of pre-existing native systems, rather kind of total wipeout. belgic invasion on larger scale parisian settlement, continuity of pottery style demonstrates native population remained in place under new rulers. same, accompanied significant socio-economic change. proto-urban, or urban settlements, known oppida, begin eclipse old hillforts, , elite position based on battle-prowess , ability manipulate resources re-appears more distinctly.

in 55 , 54 bc, julius caesar, part of campaigns in gaul, invaded britain , claimed have scored number of victories, never penetrated further hertfordshire , unable establish province. however, invasions mark turning-point in british history. control of trade, flow of resources , prestige goods, became ever more important elites of southern britain; provider of relatively limitless wealth , patronage, rome steadily became biggest player in dealings. in such system, retrospect, clear full-scale invasion , ultimate annexation inevitable.