Ideological origins Fascism and ideology

1 ideological origins

1.1 influences (495 bc–1880 ad)
1.2 fin de siècle era , fusion of nationalism sorelianism (1880–1914)
1.3 world war , aftermath (1914–1922)
1.4 rise power , initial international spread of fascism (1922–1929)
1.5 international surge of fascism , world war ii (1929–1945)
1.6 fascism, neofascism , postfascism after world war ii (1945–present)

ideological origins
early influences (495 bc–1880 ad)

depiction of spartan hoplite warrior, ancient sparta has been considered inspiration fascist , quasi-fascist movements, such nazism , quasi-fascist metaxism

early influences shaped ideology of fascism have been dated ancient greece. political culture of ancient greece , ancient greek city state of sparta under lycurgus, emphasis on militarism , racial purity, admired nazis. nazi führer adolf hitler emphasized germany should adhere hellenic values , culture – particularly of ancient sparta. rebuked potential criticism of hellenic values being non-german emphasizing common aryan race connection ancient greeks, saying in mein kampf: 1 must not allow differences of individual races tear greater racial community . hitler went on in mein kampf: struggle rages today involves great aims: culture fights existence, combines millenniums , embraces hellenism , germanity . spartans emulated quasi-fascist regime of ioannis metaxas called greeks wholly commit nation self-control spartans had done. supporters of 4th of august regime in 1930s 1940s justified dictatorship of metaxas on basis first greek civilization involved athenian dictatorship led pericles had brought ancient greece greatness. greek philosopher plato supported many similar political positions fascism. in republic (c. 380 bc), plato emphasizes need philosopher king in ideal state. plato believed ideal state ruled elite class of rulers known guardians , rejected idea of social equality. plato believed in authoritarian state. plato held athenian democracy in contempt saying: laws of democracy remain dead letter, freedom anarchy, equality equality of unequals . fascism, plato emphasized individuals must adhere laws , perform duties while declining grant individuals rights limit or reject state interference in lives. fascism, plato claimed ideal state have state-run education designed promote able rulers , warriors. many fascist ideologues, plato advocated state-sponsored eugenics program carried out in order improve guardian class in republic through selective breeding. italian fascist il duce benito mussolini had strong attachment works of plato. however, there significant differences between plato s ideals , fascism. unlike fascism, plato never promoted expansionism , opposed offensive war.

bust of julius caesar, dictator of roman republic (49 bc–44 bc)

italian fascists identified ideology being connected legacy of ancient rome , particularly roman empire: julius caesar , augustus idolized italian fascists. italian fascism views modern state of italy heir of roman empire , emphasized need renovation of italian culture return roman values . italian fascists identify roman empire being ideal organic , stable society in contrast contemporary individualist liberal society identify being chaotic in comparison. julius caesar has been identified role model fascists because led revolution overthrew old order establish new order based on dictatorship in julius caesar wielded absolute power. mussolini emphasized need dictatorship, activist leadership style , leader cult of julius caesar involved fix unifying , balanced centre , common action . italian fascists idolized augustus champion built roman empire. fasces – symbol of roman authority – symbol of italian fascists , additionally adopted many other national fascist movements formed in emulation of italian fascism. while number of nazis rejected roman civilization because saw incompatible aryan germanic culture , believed aryan germanic culture outside roman culture, adolf hitler admired ancient rome. hitler focused on ancient rome during rise dominance , @ height of power model follow , hitler admired roman empire ability forge strong , unified civilization , in private conversations blamed fall of roman empire on roman adoption of christianity because claimed christianity authorized racial intermixing weakened rome , led destruction.

leviathan (1651), book written thomas hobbes advocates absolute monarchy

there number of influences on fascism renaissance era in europe. niccolò machiavelli known have influenced italian fascism, particularly promotion of absolute authority of state. machiavelli rejected existing traditional , metaphysical assumptions of time—especially associated middle ages—and asserted italian patriot italy needed strong , all-powerful state led vigorous , ruthless leader conquer , unify italy. mussolini saw himself modern-day machiavellian , wrote introduction honorary doctoral thesis university of bologna— prelude machiavelli . mussolini professed machiavelli s pessimism human nature eternal in acuity. individuals not relied on voluntarily obey law, pay taxes , serve in war . no well-ordered society want people sovereign , dictators of 20th century mimicked mussolini s admiration machiavelli , stalin... saw himself embodiment of machiavellian vertù . lenin influenced prince well, keeping copy of on nightstand , did hitler.

english political theorist thomas hobbes in work leviathan (1651) created ideology of absolutism advocated all-powerful absolute monarchy maintain order within state. absolutism influence on fascism. absolutism based legitimacy on precedents of roman law including centralized roman state , manifestation of roman law in catholic church. though fascism supported absolute power of state, opposes idea of absolute power being in hands of monarch , opposes feudalism associated absolute monarchies.

portrait of johann gottfried herder, creator of concept of nationalism

during enlightenment, number of ideological influences arose shape development of fascism. development of study of universal histories johann gottfried herder resulted in herder s analysis of development of nations, herder developed term nationalismus ( nationalism ) describe cultural phenomenon. @ time nationalism did not refer political ideology of nationalism later developed during french revolution. herder developed theory europeans descendants of indo-aryan people based on language studies. herder argued germanic peoples held close racial connections ancient indians , ancient persians, claimed advanced peoples possessing great capacity wisdom, nobility, restraint , science. contemporaries of herder utilized concept of aryan race draw distinction between deemed high , noble aryan culture versus of parasitic semitic culture , anti-semitic variant view of europeans aryan roots formed basis of nazi racial views. major influence on fascism came political theories of georg wilhelm friedrich hegel. hegel promoted absolute authority of state , said nothing short of state actualization of freedom , state march of god on earth .

the french revolution , political legacy had major influence upon development of fascism. fascists view french revolution largely negative event resulted in entrenchment of liberal ideas such liberal democracy, anticlericalism , rationalism. opponents of french revolution conservatives , reactionaries, revolution later criticized marxists bourgeois character , racist nationalists opposed universalist principles. racist nationalists in particular condemned french revolution granting social equality inferior races such jews. mussolini condemned french revolution developing liberalism, scientific socialism , liberal democracy, acknowledged fascism extracted , utilized elements had preserved ideologies vitality , fascism had no desire restore conditions precipitated french revolution. though fascism opposed core parts of revolution, fascists supported other aspects of it, mussolini declared support revolution s demolishment of remnants of middle ages such tolls , compulsory labour upon citizens , noted french revolution did have benefits in had been cause of whole french nation , not merely political party. importantly, french revolution responsible entrenchment of nationalism political ideology – both in development in france french nationalism , in creation of nationalist movements particularly in germany development of german nationalism johann gottlieb fichte political response development of french nationalism. nazis accused french revolution of being dominated jews , freemasons , disturbed revolution s intention break france away past history in nazis claimed repudiation of history asserted trait of enlightenment. though nazis highly critical of revolution, hitler in mein kampf said french revolution model how achieve change claims caused rhetorical strength of demagogues. furthermore, nazis idealized levée en masse (mass mobilization of soldiers) developed french revolutionary armies , nazis sought use system paramilitary movement.

fin de siècle era , fusion of nationalism sorelianism (1880–1914)

the ideological roots of fascism have been traced 1880s , in particular fin de siècle theme of time. theme based on revolt against materialism, rationalism, positivism, bourgeois society , liberal democracy. fin-de-siècle generation supported emotionalism, irrationalism, subjectivism , vitalism. fin-de-siècle mindset saw civilization being in crisis required massive , total solution. fin-de-siècle intellectual school of 1890s – including gabriele d annunzio , enrico corradini in italy; maurice barrès, edouard drumont , georges sorel in france; , paul de lagarde, julius langbehn , arthur moeller van den bruck in germany – saw social , political collectivity more important individualism , rationalism. considered individual 1 part of larger collectivity, should not viewed atomized numerical sum of individuals. condemned rationalistic individualism of liberal society , dissolution of social links in bourgeois society. saw modern society 1 of mediocrity, materialism, instability, , corruption. denounced big-city urban society being merely based on instinct , animality , without heroism.

the fin-de-siècle outlook influenced various intellectual developments, including darwinian biology; wagnerian aesthetics; arthur de gobineau s racialism; gustave le bon s psychology; , philosophies of friedrich nietzsche, fyodor dostoyevsky , henri bergson. social darwinism, gained widespread acceptance, made no distinction between physical , social life , viewed human condition being unceasing struggle achieve survival of fittest. social darwinism challenged positivism s claim of deliberate , rational choice determining behaviour of humans, social darwinism focusing on heredity, race , environment. social darwinism s emphasis on biogroup identity , role of organic relations within societies fostered legitimacy , appeal nationalism. new theories of social , political psychology rejected notion of human behaviour being governed rational choice, , instead claimed emotion more influential in political issues reason. nietzsche s argument god dead coincided attack on herd mentality of christianity, democracy , modern collectivism; concept of übermensch; , advocacy of power primordial instinct major influences upon many of fin-de-siècle generation. bergson s claim of existence of élan vital or vital instinct centred upon free choice , rejected processes of materialism , determinism, challenged marxism.

with advent of darwinian theory of evolution came claims of evolution possibly leading decadence. proponents of decadence theories claimed contemporary western society s decadence result of modern life, including urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, survival of least fit , modern culture s emphasis on egalitarianism, individualistic anomie, , nonconformity. main work gave rise decadence theories work degeneration (1892) max nordau popular in europe, ideas of decadence helped cause of nationalists presented nationalism cure decadence.

gaetano mosca in work ruling class (1896) developed theory claims in societies, organized minority dominate , rule on disorganized majority . mosca claims there 2 classes in society, governing (the organized minority) , governed (the disorganized majority). claims organized nature of organized minority makes irresistible individual of disorganized majority. mosca developed theory in 1896 in argued problem of supremacy of civilian power in society solved in part presence , social structural design of militaries. claims social structure of military ideal because includes diverse social elements balance each other out , more importantly inclusion of officer class power elite . mosca presented social structure , methods of governance military valid model of development civil society. mosca s theories known have influenced mussolini s notion of political process , fascism.

related mosca s theory of domination of society organized minority on disorganized majority robert michels theory of iron law of oligarchy has become mainstream political theory. theory of iron law of oligarchy, created in 1911 michels, major attack on basis of contemporary democracy. michels argues oligarchy inevitable iron law within organization part of tactical , technical necessities of organization , on topic of democracy, michels stated: organization gives birth dominion of elected on electors, of mandataries on mandators, of delegates on delegators. says organization, says oligarchy . claims: historical evolution mocks prophylactic measures have been adopted prevention of oligarchy . states official goal of contemporary democracy of eliminating elite rule impossible, democracy façade legitimizing rule of particular elite , elite rule, refers oligarchy, inevitable. michels had formerly been marxist, became drawn syndicalism of georges sorel, Édouard berth, arturo labriola , enrico leone , had become opposed parliamentarian, legalistic , bureaucratic socialism of social democracy , in contrast supported activist, voluntarist, anti-parliamentarian socialism. nonetheless, both michels , olivetti conceived italy s proletarian nationalism revolutionary, indeed, marxist in essence . revolutionary syndicalists, including michels, realized proletarian internationalism did not suggest abandonment on part of workers class of national sentiment nor neglect of national interest . under interpretation, in compliance marx s theories economic development, viewed prerequisite of socialist revolution , proletarian class required not national independence , sort of commitment program of nationalism , movement mussolini later referred proletarian nationalism michels later become supporter of fascism upon mussolini s rise power in 1922, viewing fascism s goal destroy liberal democracy in sympathetic manner. according fascist intellectuals, proletarian nations of national socialist germany , fascist italy advance socioeconomic , nationalist structure, designed avoid economic collapse experienced lenin s russia integrate class nation through nationalization of masses . such social nationalistic framework expected provide basis social justice wherein state belong classes , unite nation socialism .

maurice barrès

maurice barrès, influenced policies of fascism, claimed true democracy authoritarian democracy while rejecting liberal democracy fraud. barrès claimed authoritarian democracy involved spiritual connection between leader of nation , nation s people, , true freedom did not arise individual rights nor parliamentary restraints, through heroic leadership , national power . emphasized need hero worship , charismatic leadership in national society. barrès mixed anti-semitic nationalism socialism , identified national socialist , in 1889 founding member of league french fatherland , in 1898 became member of national socialist republican committee , elected french parliament in 1906—though after abandoned ties anti-dreyfusard politicians. national socialism emphasized cross-class interests , emphasized role of intuition , emotion in politics , emphasized racial anti-semitism.

the rise of support anarchism in period of time important in influencing politics of fascism. anarchist mikhail bakunin s concept of propaganda of deed stressed importance of direct action primary means of politics—including revolutionary violence—became popular amongst fascists admired concept , adopted part of fascism.

one of key persons influenced fascism, french revolutionary syndicalist georges sorel influenced anarchism , contributed fusion of anarchism , syndicalism anarcho syndicalism. sorel promoted legitimacy of political violence in work reflections on violence (1908) , other works in advocated radical syndicalist action achieve revolution overthrow capitalism , bourgeoisie through general strike. in reflections on violence, sorel emphasized need revolutionary political religion. in work illusions of progress, sorel denounced democracy reactionary, saying nothing more aristocratic democracy . 1909 after failure of syndicalist general strike in france, sorel , supporters left radical left , went radical right, sought merge militant catholicism , french patriotism views – advocating anti-republican christian french patriots ideal revolutionaries. sorel had officially been revisionist of marxism, 1910 announced abandonment of socialist literature , claimed in 1914, using aphorism of benedetto croce socialism dead due decomposition of marxism . sorel became supporter of reactionary maurrassian integral nationalism beginning in 1909 influenced works. french right-wing monarchist , nationalist charles maurras held interest in merging nationalist ideals sorelian syndicalism means confront liberal democracy. maurras famously stated socialism liberated democratic , cosmopolitan element fits nationalism well made glove fits beautiful hand . sorelianism considered precursor fascism. fusion of nationalism on political right sorelian syndicalism on left, around outbreak of world war i. sorelian syndicalism, unlike other ideologies on left, held elitist view morality of working class needed raised. sorelian concept of positive nature of social war , insistence on moral revolution led syndicalists believe war ultimate manifestation of social change , moral revolution.

nonetheless, despite support radical nationalism , retreat classical marxism, sorel supporter of russian october revolution, final ideological incarnation appeared bolshevist . 1920, sorel called lenin greatest theoretician of socialism since marx , statesman genius recalls of peter great . years sorel wrote numerous articles italian newspapers defending bolsheviks in revolutionary efforts socialize russia. around time, mussolini applauded sorel declaring: am, owe sorel . in return, sorel lauded mussolini in 1921 calling leader of italy s fascist party man no less extraordinary lenin. he, too, political genius, of greater reach statesmen of day, exception of lenin .

the fusion of maurrassian nationalism , sorelian syndicalism influenced radical italian nationalist enrico corradini. corradini spoke of need nationalist-syndicalist movement, led elitist aristocrats , anti-democrats shared revolutionary syndicalist commitment direct action , willingness fight. corradini spoke of italy being proletarian nation needed pursue imperialism in order challenge plutocratic french , british. corradini s views part of wider set of perceptions within right-wing italian nationalist association (ani), claimed italy s economic backwardness caused corruption in political class, liberalism, , division caused ignoble socialism . ani held ties , influence among conservatives, catholics, , business community. italian national syndicalists held common set of principles: rejection of bourgeois values, democracy, liberalism, marxism, internationalism , pacifism , promotion of heroism, vitalism , violence.

filippo tommaso marinetti, author of futurist manifesto (1908) , later co-author of fascist manifesto (1919)

radical nationalism in italy—support expansionism , cultural revolution create new man , new state —began grow in 1912 during italian conquest of libya , supported italian futurists , members of ani. futurism both artistic-cultural movement , political movement in italy led filippo tommaso marinetti founded futurist manifesto (1908), championed causes of modernism, action , political violence necessary elements of politics while denouncing liberalism , parliamentary politics. marinetti rejected conventional democracy based on majority rule , egalitarianism while promoting new form of democracy, described in work futurist conception of democracy following: therefore able give directions create , dismantle numbers, quantity, mass, number, quantity , mass never be—as in germany , russia—the number, quantity , mass of mediocre men, incapable , indecisive . ani claimed liberal democracy no longer compatible modern world , advocated strong state , imperialism, claiming humans naturally predatory , nations in constant struggle, in strongest survive.

until 1914, italian nationalists , revolutionary syndicalists nationalist leanings remained apart. such syndicalists opposed italo-turkish war of 1911 affair of financial interests , not nation, world war seen both italian nationalists , syndicalists national affair.

world war , aftermath (1914–1922)

at outbreak of world war in august 1914, italian political left became severely split on position on war. italian socialist party opposed war on grounds of internationalism, number of italian revolutionary syndicalists supported intervention against germany , austria-hungary on grounds reactionary regimes needed defeated ensure success of socialism. corradini presented same need italy proletarian nation defeat reactionary germany nationalist perspective. beginning of fascism resulted split, angelo oliviero olivetti forming revolutionary fascio international action in october 1914. @ same time, benito mussolini joined interventionist cause. fascists supported nationalism , claimed proletarian internationalism failure.

at time, fascists did not have integrated set of policies , movement small. attempts hold mass meetings ineffective , regularly harassed government authorities , socialists. antagonism between interventionists—including fascists—and anti-interventionist socialists resulted in violence. attacks on interventionists violent democratic socialists opposed war, such anna kuliscioff, said italian socialist party had gone far in campaign silence supporters of war.

italy s use of daredevil elite shock troops known arditi, beginning in 1917, important influence on fascism. arditi soldiers trained life of violence , wore unique blackshirt uniforms , fezzes. arditi formed national organization in november 1918, associazione fra gli arditi d italia, mid-1919 had twenty thousand young men within it. mussolini appealed arditi , fascists squadristi developed after war based upon arditi.

russian bolsheviks shortly after october revolution of 1917, whom italian fascists praised, 1919 had become violently anti-bolshevik , fascists politically benefited fear of communist revolution promising radical alternative forcibly stop communist class revolution , resolve class differences

a major event influenced development of fascism october revolution of 1917 in bolshevik communists led vladimir lenin seized power in russia. in 1917, mussolini leader of fasci of revolutionary action praised october revolution, mussolini later became unimpressed lenin, regarding him merely new version of tsar nicholas. after world war i, fascists have commonly campaigned on anti-marxist agendas. nonetheless, mussolini during fascist revolutionary party (pfr) leadership determined war communism leading economic collapse instead of productive proletarian state. reversing position, mussolini criticized lenin s actions failing uphold marxist principles, writing colleague negation of socialism because had not created dictatorship of proletariat or of socialist party, of few intellectuals had found secret of winning power .

generally, both bolshevism , fascism hold ideological similarities: both advocate revolutionary ideology, both believe in necessity of vanguard elite, both have disdain bourgeois values , both had totalitarian ambitions. in practice, fascism , bolshevism have commonly emphasized revolutionary action, proletarian nation theories, one-party states , party-armies. former prime minister of italy francesco saverio nitti observed same bolshevik-fascist parallels in 1927, writing under mussolini s regime there greater tolerance displayed toward communists affiliated moscow liberals, democrats, , socialists . mussolini had become verse in marxism after being tutored angelica balabanoff , associating leon trotsky , lenin during stay in switzerland 1902 1904.

with antagonism between anti-interventionist marxists , pro-interventionist fascists complete end of war, 2 sides became irreconcilable. fascists presented anti-marxists , opposed marxists. nonetheless, mussolini briefly referred himself lenin of italy during 1919 election, fascist revolutionary party attempted out-socialist socialists . mussolini consolidated control on fascist movement in 1919 founding of fasci italiani di combattimento, opposition non-nationalistic socialism declared:

we declare war against socialism, not because socialism, because has opposed nationalism. although can discuss question of socialism is, program, , tactics, 1 thing obvious: official italian socialist party has been reactionary , absolutely conservative. if views had prevailed, our survival in world of today impossible.

in 1919, alceste de ambris , futurist movement leader filippo tommaso marinetti created manifesto of italian fasci of combat (also known fascist manifesto). manifesto presented on 6 june 1919 in fascist newspaper il popolo d italia. manifesto supported creation of universal suffrage both men , women (the latter being realized partly in late 1925, opposition parties banned or disbanded); proportional representation on regional basis; government representation through corporatist system of national councils of experts, selected professionals , tradespeople, elected represent , hold legislative power on respective areas, including labour, industry, transportation, public health, communications, etc.; , abolition of italian senate. manifesto supported creation of eight-hour work day workers, minimum wage, worker representation in industrial management, equal confidence in labour unions in industrial executives , public servants, reorganization of transportation sector, revision of draft law on invalidity insurance, reduction of retirement age 65 55, strong progressive tax on capital, confiscation of property of religious institutions , abolishment of bishoprics , revision of military contracts allow government seize 85% of profits. called creation of short-service national militia serve defensive duties, nationalization of armaments industry , foreign policy designed peaceful competitive.

residents of fiume cheer arrival of gabriele d annunzio , blackshirt-wearing nationalist raiders, d annunzio , fascist alceste de ambris developed quasi-fascist italian regency of carnaro (a city-state in fiume) 1919 1920 , actions d annunzio in fiume inspired italian fascist movement

the next events influenced fascists raid of fiume italian nationalist gabriele d annunzio , founding of charter of carnaro in 1920. d annunzio , de ambris designed charter, advocated national-syndicalist corporatist productionism alongside d annunzio s political views. many fascists saw charter of carnaro ideal constitution fascist italy. behaviour of aggression towards yugoslavia , south slavs pursued italian fascists persecution of south slavs – slovenes , croats.

in 1920, militant strike activity industrial workers reached peak in italy, 1919 , 1920 known red years . mussolini, former union organizer, still @ moment displaying himself left-wing extremist applauded strikes . , squads of blackshirts involved in number of creative strikes in factories such metallurgical plant franchi e gregorini @ dalmine, support contingent upon workers had seized factories possessing collective capacity maintain production . fascists offered no special sanctity private property, production along worker s jobs secure. moreover, during volatile period mussolini s squads not organizing , participating in worker strikes engaged in armed attacks against church several priests assassinated , churches burned fascists . october 1920, mussolini sensed profound change in mood of proletarian , professing working masses no longer interested in expropriation of industrial capitalists, favored solving problem of production. moreover, mussolini maintained orthodox socialists had betrayed proletariat , declared official italian socialist party has been reactionary , absolutely conservative . seeking new opportunities fascist syndicalism , mussolini turned away orthodox socialist organizations, assembled violence-prone militia , employed pretense of saving italy bolshevism, although possibility had ceased threat . about-face orthodox socialists lead mussolini , fascists ally various industrial businesses , attack socialist party activists , labor organizers in name of preserving order , internal peace in italy.

nonetheless, mussolini, played both sides increase political influence, had issued open threat in 1921 if italian government attempted suppress fascists, might move other extreme , join communists in revolutionary action . in book 1927 book, bolshevism, fascism , democracy, francesco saverio nitti observed mussolini cloaking true bolshevik leanings since had retained great admiration bolshevism, though presented himself public antidote bolshevism .

fascists identified primary opponents socialists on left had opposed intervention in world war i. fascists , rest of italian political right held common ground: both held marxism in contempt, discounted class consciousness , believed in rule of elites. fascists assisted anti-socialist campaign allying other parties , conservative right in mutual effort destroy italian socialist party , labour organizations committed class identity above national identity. in 1921, mussolini joined political alliance giovanni giolitti, italy s prime minister , leader of italian liberal party considered left-wing liberal, due progressive social reforms , nationalization of private telephone , railroad operators. alliance liberals , others helped mussolini acquire authority, respectability , freedom arrest . in july 1921, mussolini suggested different coalition include fascists, socialists , populari. called pact of pacification , mussolini signed agreement italian socialist party on 2 or 3 august 1921, both unpopular , short-lived. 1 reason mussolini’s signing of peace pact italian socialist party aspiration rename party “fascist labor party” , avoid possibility of taking “categorically antileftist position”. however, @ third fascist congress in rome on 7–10 november 1921 traditional faction of revolutionary syndicalists , national socialists outvoted new majority of squadristi leaders, pressured mussolini rename party national fascist party , reorganize “association of fasci , storm squads”.

between 1922–1925, fascism sought accommodate italian liberal party, conservatives , nationalists under italy s coalition government, major alterations political agenda made—alterations such abandoning previous populism, republicanism , anticlericalism—and adopting policies of economic liberalism under alberto de stefani, center party member italy s minister of finance until dismissed mussolini after imposition of single-party dictatorship in 1925. fascist regime accepted roman catholic church , monarchy institutions in italy. appeal italian conservatives, fascism adopted policies such promoting family values, including promotion policies designed reduce number of women in workforce limiting woman s role of mother. in effort expand italy s population facilitate mussolini s future plans control mediterranean region, fascists banned literature on birth control , increased penalties abortion in 1926, declaring both crimes against state. though fascism adopted number of positions designed appeal reactionaries, fascists sought maintain fascism s revolutionary character, angelo oliviero olivetti saying fascism conservative, [be] being revolutionary . fascists supported revolutionary action , committed secure law , order appeal both conservatives , syndicalists.

prior fascism s accommodation of political right, fascism small, urban, northern italian movement had thousand members. after fascism s accommodation of political right, fascist movement s membership soared approximately 250,000 1921.

rise power , initial international spread of fascism (1922–1929)

beginning in 1922, fascist paramilitaries escalated strategy 1 of attacking socialist offices , homes of socialist leadership figures 1 of violent occupation of cities. fascists met little serious resistance authorities , proceeded take on several cities, including bologna, bolzano, cremona, ferrara, fiume , trent. fascists attacked headquarters of socialist , catholic unions in cremona , imposed forced italianization upon german-speaking population of trent , bolzano. after seizing these cities, fascists made plans take rome.

benito mussolini (centre in suit fists against body) along other fascist leader figures , blackshirts during march on rome

on 24 october 1922, fascist party held annual congress in naples, mussolini ordered blackshirts take control of public buildings , trains , converge on 3 points around rome. march led 4 prominent fascist leaders representing different factions: italo balbo, blackshirt leader; general emilio de bono; michele bianchi, ex syndicalist; , cesare maria de vecchi, monarchist fascist. mussolini himself remained in milan await results of actions. fascists managed seize control of several post offices , trains in northern italy while italian government, led left-wing coalition, internally divided , unable respond fascist advances. italian government had been in steady state of turmoil, many governments being created , being defeated. italian government took action prevent fascists entering rome, king victor emmanuel iii of italy perceived risk of bloodshed in rome in response attempting disperse fascists high. political organizations, such conservative italian nationalist association, “assured king victor emmanuel own sempre pronti militia ready fight blackshirts” if entered rome, offer never accepted. victor emmanuel iii decided appoint mussolini prime minister of italy , mussolini arrived in rome on 30 october accept appointment. fascist propaganda aggrandized event, known march on rome , seizure of power due fascists heroic exploits.

upon being appointed prime minister of italy, mussolini had form coalition government because fascists did not have control on italian parliament. coalition government included cabinet led mussolini , thirteen other ministers, 3 of whom fascists, while others included representatives army , navy, 2 catholic popolari members, 2 democratic liberals, 1 conservative liberal, 1 social democrat, 1 nationalist member , pro-fascist philosopher giovanni gentile, held substantial “sympathy neo-hegelian marxist intellectual tradition”. mussolini s coalition government pursued economically liberal policies under direction of liberal finance minister alberto de stefani center party, including balancing budget through deep cuts civil service. little drastic change in government policy had occurred , repressive police actions against communist , d annunzian rebels limited. @ same time, mussolini consolidated control on national fascist party creating governing executive party, grand council of fascism, agenda controlled. in addition, squadristi blackshirt militia transformed state-run mvsn, led regular army officers. militant squadristi highly dissatisfied mussolini s government , demanded fascist revolution .

in period, appease king of italy, mussolini formed close political alliance between italian fascists , italy s conservative faction in parliament, led luigi federzoni, conservative monarchist , nationalist member of italian nationalist association (ani). ani joined national fascist party in 1923. because of merger of nationalists fascists, tensions existed between conservative nationalist , revolutionary syndicalist factions of movement. conservative , syndicalist factions of fascist movement sought reconcile differences, secure unity , promote fascism taking on views of each other. conservative nationalist fascists promoted fascism revolutionary movement appease revolutionary syndicalists, while appease conservative nationalist fascists revolutionary syndicalist fascists declared wanted secure social stability , insure economic productivity. sentiment included syndicalist fascists, particularly edmondo rossoni, secretary-general of general confederation of fascist syndical corporations sought “labor’s autonomy , class consciousness”. after returned italy fight in world war i, rossoni promoted labor movement favored “fusing nationalism class struggle”.

the fascists began attempt entrench fascism in italy acerbo law, guaranteed plurality of seats in parliament party or coalition list in election received 25% or more of vote. acerbo law passed in spite of numerous abstentions vote. in 1924 election, fascists, along moderates , conservatives, formed coalition candidate list , through considerable fascist violence , intimidation list won 66% of vote, allowing receive 403 seats, of went fascists. in aftermath of election, crisis , political scandal erupted after socialist party deputy giacomo matteoti kidnapped , murdered fascist. liberals , leftist minority in parliament walked out in protest in became known aventine secession. on 3 january 1925, mussolini addressed fascist-dominated italian parliament , declared responsible happened, insisted had done nothing wrong , proclaimed himself dictator of italy, assuming full responsibility on government , announcing dismissal of parliament. 1925 1929, fascism steadily became entrenched in power: opposition deputies denied access parliament, censorship introduced , december 1925 decree made mussolini solely responsible king. efforts fascistize italian society accelerated beginning in 1926, fascists taking positions in local administration , 30% of prefects being administered appointed fascists 1929. in 1929, fascist regime gained political support , blessing of roman catholic church after regime signed concordat church, known lateran treaty, gave papacy state sovereignty , financial compensation seizure of church lands liberal state in 19th century. though fascist propaganda had begun speak of new regime all-encompassing totalitarian state beginning in 1925, fascist party , regime never gained total control on italy s institutions. king victor emmanuel iii remained head of state, armed forces , judicial system retained considerable autonomy fascist state, fascist militias under military control , economy had relative autonomy well.

the fascist regime began create corporatist economic system in 1925 creation of palazzo vidioni pact, in italian employers association confindustria , fascist trade unions agreed recognize each other sole representatives of italy s employers , employees, excluding non-fascist trade unions. fascist regime first created ministry of corporations organized italian economy 22 sectoral corporations, nationalized independent trade unions, banned workers strikes , lock-outs , in 1927 created charter of labour, established workers rights , duties , created labour tribunals arbitrate employer-employee disputes. in practice, sectoral corporations exercised little independence , largely controlled regime , employee organizations led employees themselves, instead appointed fascist party members.

in 1920s, fascist italy pursued aggressive foreign policy included attack on greek island of corfu, aims expand italian territory in balkans, plans wage war against turkey , yugoslavia, attempts bring yugoslavia civil war supporting croat , macedonian separatists legitimize italian intervention , making albania de facto protectorate of italy, achieved through diplomatic means 1927. in response revolt in italian colony of libya, fascist italy abandoned previous liberal-era colonial policy of cooperation local leaders. instead, claiming italians superior race african races , thereby had right colonize inferior africans, sought settle 10 15 million italians in libya. resulted in aggressive military campaign against natives in libya, including mass killings, use of concentration camps , forced starvation of thousands of people. italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing forcibly expelling 100,000 bedouin cyrenaicans, half population of cyrenaica in libya, settlements slated given italian settlers.

nazis in munich during beer hall putsch



activists of yugoslav orjuna movement, standing beside aljaž tower on summit of mount triglav in slovenia

the march on rome brought fascism international attention. 1 admirer of italian fascists adolf hitler, less month after march had begun model himself , nazi party upon mussolini , fascists. nazis, led hitler , german war hero erich ludendorff, attempted march on berlin modeled upon march on rome, resulted in failed beer hall putsch in munich in november 1923, nazis briefly captured bavarian minister president gustav ritter von kahr , announced creation of new german government led triumvirate of von kahr, hitler , ludendorff. beer hall putsch crushed bavarian police , hitler , other leading nazis arrested , detained until 1925. admirer of italian fascism gyula gömbös, leader of hungarian national defence association (known acronym move) , self-defined national socialist in 1919 spoke of need major changes in property , in 1923 stated need of march on budapest . yugoslavia briefly had significant fascist movement, orjuna supported yugoslavism, supported creation of corporatist economy, opposed democracy , took part in violent attacks on communists, though opposed italian government due yugoslav border disputes italy. orjuna dissolved in 1929 when king of yugoslavia banned political parties , created royal dictatorship, though orjuna supported king s decision. amid political crisis in spain involving increased strike activity , rising support anarchism, spanish army commander miguel primo de rivera engaged in successful coup against spanish government in 1923 , installed himself dictator head of conservative military junta dismantled established party system of government. upon achieving power, primo de rivera sought resolve economic crisis presenting himself compromise arbitrator figure between workers , bosses , regime created corporatist economic system based on italian fascist model. in lithuania in 1926, antanas smetona rose power , founded fascist regime under lithuanian nationalist union.

international surge of fascism , world war ii (1929–1945)

benito mussolini (left) , adolf hitler (right)

the events of great depression resulted in international surge of fascism , creation of several fascist regimes , regimes adopted fascist policies. important new fascist regime nazi germany, under leadership of adolf hitler. rise of hitler , nazis power in 1933, liberal democracy dissolved in germany , nazis mobilized country war, expansionist territorial aims against several countries. in 1930s, nazis implemented racial laws deliberately discriminated against, disenfranchised , persecuted jews , other racial minority groups. hungarian fascist gyula gömbös rose power prime minister of hungary in 1932 , visited fascist italy , nazi germany in order consolidate relations 2 regimes. attempted entrench party of national unity throughout country; created eight-hour work day , forty-eight-hour work week in industry , sought entrench corporatist economy; , pursued irredentist claims on hungary s neighbors. fascist iron guard movement in romania soared in political support after 1933, gaining representation in romanian government , iron guard member assassinated romanian prime minister ion duca. during 6 february 1934 crisis, france faced greatest domestic political turmoil since dreyfus affair when fascist francist movement , multiple far right movements rioted en masse in paris against french government resulting in major political violence. variety of para-fascist governments borrowed elements fascism formed during great depression, including of greece, lithuania, poland , yugoslavia.

integralists marching in brazil

fascism expanded influence outside europe, in east asia, middle east , south america. in china, wang jingwei s kai-tsu p ai (reorganization) faction of kuomintang (nationalist party of china) supported nazism in late 1930s. in japan, nazi movement called tōhōkai formed seigō nakano. al-muthanna club of iraq pan-arab movement supported nazism , exercised influence in iraqi government through cabinet minister saib shawkat formed paramilitary youth movement. several, short-lived fascist governments , prominent fascist movements, formed in south america during period , argentine president general josé félix uriburu proposed argentina reorganized along corporatist , fascist lines. peruvian president luis miguel sánchez cerro founded revolutionary union in 1931 state party dictatorship. upon revolutionary union being taken on raúl ferrero rebagliati, sought mobilise mass support group s nationalism in manner akin fascism , started paramilitary blackshirts arm copy of italian group, although union lost heavily in 1936 elections , faded obscurity. in paraguay in 1940, paraguayan president general higinio morínigo began rule dictator support of pro-fascist military officers, appealed masses, exiled opposition leaders , abandoned pro-fascist policies after end of world war ii. brazilian integralists led plínio salgado, claimed many 200,000 members although following coup attempts faced crackdown estado novo of getúlio vargas in 1937. in 1930s, national socialist movement of chile gained seats in chile s parliament , attempted coup d état resulted in seguro obrero massacre of 1938.

during great depression, mussolini promoted active state intervention in economy , denounced contemporary supercapitalism claimed began in 1914 failure due alleged decadence, support unlimited consumerism , intention create standardization of humankind . however, mussolini claimed industrial developments of earlier heroic capitalism valuable , continued support private property long productive. onset of great depression, fascist italy began large-scale state intervention economy, establishing institute industrial reconstruction (istituto per la ricostruzione industriale, iri), giant state-owned firm , holding company provided state funding failing private enterprises. iri made permanent institution in fascist italy in 1937, pursued fascist policies create national autarky , had power take on private firms maximize war production. not long after creation of institute industrial reconstruction, mussolini boasted in 1934 speech chamber of deputies: three-fourths of italian economy, industrial , agricultural, in hands of state . italy continued nationalize economy, iri became owner not of 3 important italian banks, big fail, of lion s share of italian industries . 1939, fascist italy attained highest rate of state–ownership of economy in world other soviet union; italian state controlled on four-fifths of italy s shipping , shipbuilding, three-quarters of pig iron production , half of steel .

in late 1930s, italy enacted manufacturing cartels, tariff barriers, currency restrictions , massive regulation of economy attempt balance payments. however, italy s policy of autarky failed achieve effective economic autonomy. nazi germany pursued economic agenda aims of autarky , rearmament , imposed protectionist policies, including forcing german steel industry use lower-quality german iron ore rather superior-quality imported iron. in fascist italy , nazi germany, both pursued territorial expansionist , interventionist foreign policy agendas 1930s through 1940s culminating in world war ii. mussolini called irredentist italian claims reclaimed, establishing italian domination of mediterranean sea , securing italian access atlantic ocean , creation of italian spazio vitale ( vital space ) in mediterranean , red sea regions. hitler called irredentist german claims reclaimed along creation of german lebensraum ( living space ) in eastern europe, including territories held soviet union, colonized germans.

corpses of victims of german buchenwald concentration camp

from 1935 1939, germany , italy escalated demands territorial claims , greater influence in world affairs. italy invaded ethiopia in 1935, resulting in condemnation league of nations , widespread diplomatic isolation. in 1936, germany remilitarized industrial rhineland, region had been ordered demilitarized treaty of versailles. in 1938, germany annexed austria , italy assisted germany in resolving diplomatic crisis between germany versus britain , france on claims on czechoslovakia arranging munich agreement gave germany sudetenland , perceived @ time have averted european war. these hopes faded when hitler violated munich agreement ordering invasion , partition of czechoslovakia between germany , client state of slovakia in 1939. @ same time 1938 1939, italy demanding territorial , colonial concessions france , britain, demanding immediate concession of corsica , tunisia france, secondary set of objectives including italian acquisition of malta , cyprus britain , tertiary set of objectives including long-term goals of eventual italian control on gibraltar , suez canal – considered fascist government keys mediterranean . in 1939, germany prepared war poland, attempted gain territorial concessions poland through diplomatic means. germany demanded poland accept annexation of free city of danzig germany , authorize construction of automobile highways germany through polish corridor danzig , east prussia in order unite infrastructure of germany, danzig , east prussia. while aside germany s use of highways, these territories remain under polish jurisdiction , promised twenty-five year non-aggression pact. polish government did not trust hitler s promises , refused accept germany s demands. strategic alliance between germany , soviet union against poland, germany , soviet union planned invade poland in 1939 unless poland conceded german demands 1 september 1939, poland refused, germany invaded , followed soviet invasion of poland.

the invasion of poland germany deemed unacceptable britain, france , allies, resulting in mutual declaration of war against germany deemed aggressor in war in poland, resulting in outbreak of world war ii. germany , soviet union partitioned poland between them in late 1939 followed successful german offensive in scandinavia , continental western europe in 1940. on 10 june 1940, mussolini led italy world war ii on side of axis. mussolini aware italy did not have military capacity carry out long war france or united kingdom , waited until france on verge of imminent collapse , surrender german invasion before declaring war on france , united kingdom on 10 june 1940 on assumption war short-lived following france s collapse. mussolini believed following brief entry of italy war france, followed imminent french surrender, italy gain territorial concessions france , concentrate forces on major offensive in egypt british , commonwealth forces outnumbered italian forces. plans germany invade united kingdom in 1940 failed after germany lost aerial warfare campaign in battle of britain. war became prolonged contrary mussolini s plans resulting in italy losing battles on multiple fronts , requiring german assistance. in 1941, axis campaign spread soviet union after hitler launched operation barbarossa. axis forces @ height of power controlled of continental europe. 1942, nazi germany annexed poland germany , controlled vast sections of continental europe, including occupation of large portions of soviet union. 1942, fascist italy occupied , annexed dalmatia yugoslavia, corsica , nice france , controlled other territories. during world war ii, axis powers in europe led nazi germany participated in extermination of millions of jews , others in genocide known holocaust. in asia, japan committed large massacres of chinese civilians.

after 1942, axis forces began falter. 1943, after italy faced multiple military failures, complete reliance , subordination of italy germany , allied invasion of italy , corresponding international humiliation, mussolini removed head of government , arrested order of king victor emmanuel iii proceeded dismantle fascist state , declared italy s switching of allegiance allied side. mussolini rescued arrest german forces , led german client state, italian social republic 1943 1945. nazi germany faced multiple losses , steady soviet , western allied offensives 1943 1945.

emaciated male inmate @ italian rab concentration camp

on 28 april 1945, mussolini captured , executed italian communist partisans had body , of others executed displayed on meat hook in front of crowds celebrated execution. on 30 april 1945, battle of berlin between collapsing german forces , soviet armed forces, hitler committed suicide. shortly afterwards, germany surrendered , nazi regime dismantled , key nazi members arrested stand trial crimes against humanity involving holocaust.

yugoslavia, greece , ethiopia requested extradition of 1,200 italian war criminals, these people never saw nuremberg trials since british government, beginning of cold war, saw in pietro badoglio guarantee of anti-communist post-war italy. repression of memory led historical revisionism in italy , in 2003 italian media published silvio berlusconi s statement benito mussolini used send people on vacation , denying existence of italian concentration camps such rab concentration camp.

fascism, neofascism , postfascism after world war ii (1945–present)

juan perón, president of argentina 1946 1955 , 1973 1974, admired italian fascism , modelled economic policies on pursued fascist italy

in aftermath of world war ii, victory of allies on axis powers led collapse of multiple fascist regimes in europe. nuremberg trials convicted multiple nazi leaders of crimes against humanity involving holocaust. however, there remained multiple ideologies , governments ideologically related fascism.

francisco franco s quasi-fascist falangist one-party state in spain officially neutral during world war ii , survived collapse of axis powers. franco s rise power had been directly assisted militaries of fascist italy , nazi germany during spanish civil war , had sent volunteers fight on side of nazi germany against soviet union during world war ii. after world war ii , period of international isolation, franco s regime normalized relations western powers during years of cold war until franco s death in 1975 , transformation of spain liberal democracy.

peronism, associated regime of juan peron in argentina 1946 1955 , 1973 1974, influenced fascism. prior rising power, 1939 1941 peron had developed deep admiration of italian fascism , modelled economic policies on italian fascist economic policies.

the south african government of afrikaner nationalist , white supremacist daniel françois malan closely associated pro-fascist , pro-nazi politics. in 1937, malan s purified national party, south african fascists , blackshirts agreed form coalition south african election. malan had fiercely opposed south africa s participation on allied side in world war ii. malan s government founded apartheid, system of racial segregation of whites , non-whites in south africa. extreme afrikaner fascist movement neo-nazi white supremacist afrikaner resistance movement (awb) @ 1 point recorded in 1991 have 50,000 supporters rising support. awb grew in support in response efforts dismantle apartheid in 1980s , 1990s , paramilitary wing storm falcons threatened violence against people considered trouble makers .

ba ath party founder michel aflaq (left) iraqi president saddam hussein (right) in 1988, both of ba athism s key ideologists michel aflaq , zaki al-arsuzi directly inspired fascism , nazism

another ideology influenced fascism ba athism. ba athism revolutionary arab nationalist ideology seeks unification of claimed arab lands single arab state. zaki al-arsuzi, 1 of principal founders of ba athism, influenced , supportive of fascism , nazism. several close associates of ba athism s key ideologist michel aflaq have admitted aflaq had been directly inspired fascist , nazi theorists. ba athist regimes in power in iraq , syria have held strong similarities fascism, radical authoritarian nationalist one-party states. due ba athism s anti-western stances preferred soviet union in cold war , admired , adopted soviet organizational structures governments, ba athist regimes have persecuted communists. fascist regimes, ba athism became heavily militarized in power. ba athist movements governed iraq in 1963 , again 1968 2003 , in syria 1963 present. ba athist heads of state such syrian president hafez al-assad , iraqi president saddam hussein created personality cults around portraying nationalist saviours of arab world.

ba athist iraq under saddam hussein pursued ethnic cleansing or liquidation of minorities, pursued expansionist wars against iran , kuwait , gradually replaced pan-arabism iraqi nationalism emphasized iraq s connection glories of ancient mesopotamian empires, including babylonia. historian on fascism stanley payne has said saddam hussein s regime: there never again reproduction of third reich, saddam hussein has come closer other dictator since 1945 .

in 1990s, payne claimed prominent hindu nationalist movement rashtriya swayamsevak sangh (rss) holds strong resemblances fascism—including use of paramilitaries , irredentist claims—calling creation of greater india. cyprian blamires in world fascism: historical encyclopedia describes ideology of rss fascism sanskrit characters – unique indian variant of fascism. blamires notes there evidence rss held direct contact italy s fascist regime , admired european fascism. view support a. james gregor. however, these views have met wide criticism, academics specializing indian politics. paul brass, expert on hindu-muslim violence, notes there many problems accepting point of view , identified 4 reasons difficult define sangh fascist. firstly, scholars of field not subscribe view rss fascist, notably among them christophe jaffrelot, a. james gregor , chetan bhatt. other reasons include absence of charismatic leadership, desire on part of rss differentiate european fascism, major cultural differences between rss , european fascists , factionalism within sangh parivar. stanley payne claims has substantial differences fascism such emphasis on traditional religion basis of identity.