Fascist Italy Benito Mussolini

1 fascist italy

1.1 organizational innovations
1.2 police state
1.3 pacification of libya
1.4 economic policy
1.5 propaganda , cult of personality
1.6 culture
1.7 foreign policy

fascist italy
organizational innovations

german-american historian konrad jarausch has argued mussolini responsible integrated suite of political innovations made fascism powerful force in europe. first, went beyond vague promise of future national renewal, , proved movement seize power , operate comprehensive government in major country along fascist lines. second, movement claimed represent entire national community, not fragment such working class or aristocracy. made significant effort include alienated catholic element. defined public roles main sectors of business community rather allowing operate backstage. third, developed cult of one-man leadership focused media attention , national debate on own personality. former journalist, mussolini proved highly adept @ exploiting forms of mass media, including such new forms motion pictures , radio. fourth, created mass membership party, free programs young men, young women, , various other groups therefore more readily mobilized , monitored. shut down alternative political formations , parties (but step not innovation means). dictators made liberal use of threat of extrajudicial violence, actual violence blackshirts, frighten opposition.

police state

mussolini in years in power

between 1925 , 1927, mussolini progressively dismantled virtually constitutional , conventional restraints on power , built police state. law passed on december 24, 1925 – christmas eve largely roman catholic country – changed mussolini s formal title president of council of ministers head of government , although still called prime minister non-italian news sources. no longer responsible parliament , removed king. while italian constitution stated ministers responsible sovereign, in practice had become impossible govern against express of parliament. christmas eve law ended practice, , made mussolini person competent determine body s agenda. law transformed mussolini s government de facto legal dictatorship. local autonomy abolished, , podestàs appointed italian senate replaced elected mayors , councils.

on 7 april 1926, mussolini survived first assassination attempt violet gibson, irish woman , daughter of lord ashbourne, deported after arrest. on 31 october 1926, 15-year-old anteo zamboni attempted shoot mussolini in bologna. zamboni lynched on spot. mussolini survived failed assassination attempt in rome anarchist gino lucetti, , planned attempt italian anarchist michele schirru, ended schirru s capture , execution.

all other parties outlawed following zamboni s assassination attempt in 1926, though in practice italy had been one-party state since 1925 (with either january speech chamber or passage of christmas eve law, depending on source). in same year, electoral law abolished parliamentary elections. instead, grand council of fascism selected single list of candidates approved plebiscite. grand council had been created 5 years earlier party body constitutionalized , became highest constitutional authority in state. on paper, grand council had power recommend mussolini s removal office, , theoretically check on power. however, mussolini summon grand council , determine agenda. gain control of south, sicily, appointed cesare mori prefect of city of palermo, charge of eradicating mafia @ price. in telegram, mussolini wrote mori:

your excellency has carte blanche; authority of state must absolutely, repeat absolutely, re-established in sicily. if laws still in force hinder you, no problem, draw new laws.

mori did not hesitate lay siege towns, using torture, , holding women , children hostages oblige suspects give up. these harsh methods earned him nickname of iron prefect . in 1927, mori s inquiries brought evidence of collusion between mafia , fascist establishment, , dismissed length of service in 1929, @ time number of murders in palermo province had decreased 200 23. mussolini nominated mori senator, , fascist propaganda claimed mafia had been defeated.

pacification of libya

in 1919, italian state had brought in series of liberal reforms in libya allowed education in arabic , berber , allowed possibility libyans might become italian citizens. giuseppe volpi, had been appointed governor in 1921 retained mussolini, , withdrew of measures offering equality libyans. policy of confiscating land libyans hand on italian colonists gave new vigor libyan resistance led omar mukhtar, , during ensuing pacification of libya , fascist regime waged near-genocidal campaign designed kill many libyans possible. on half population of cyrenaica confined 15 concentration camps 1931 while royal italian air force staged chemical warfare attacks against bedouin. on 20 june 1930, marshal pietro badoglio wrote general rodolfo graziani:

as overall strategy, necessary create significant , clear separation between controlled population , rebel formations. not hide significance , seriousness of measure, might ruin of subdued population ... course has been set, , must carry out end, if entire population of cyrenaica must perish.

on 3 january 1933, mussolini told diplomat baron pompei aloisi french in tunisia had made appalling blunder permitting sex between french , tunisians, predicted lead french degenerating nation of half-castes , , prevent same thing happening italians gave orders marshal badolglio miscegenation made crime in libya.

economic policy


the inauguration of littoria in 1932

mussolini launched several public construction programs , government initiatives throughout italy combat economic setbacks or unemployment levels. earliest (and 1 of best known) battle wheat, 5,000 new farms established , 5 new agricultural towns (among them littoria , sabaudia) on land reclaimed draining pontine marshes. in sardinia, model agricultural town founded , named mussolinia, has long since been renamed arborea. town first of mussolini hoped have been thousands of new agricultural settlements across country. battle wheat diverted valuable resources wheat production away other more economically viable crops. landowners grew wheat on unsuitable soil using advances of modern science, , although wheat harvest increased, prices rose, consumption fell , high tariffs imposed. tariffs promoted widespread inefficiencies , government subsidies given farmers pushed country further debt.

mussolini initiated battle land , policy based on land reclamation outlined in 1928. initiative had mixed success; while projects such draining of pontine marsh in 1935 agriculture propaganda purposes, provided work unemployed , allowed great land owners control subsidies, other areas in battle land not successful. program inconsistent battle wheat (small plots of land inappropriately allocated large-scale wheat production), , pontine marsh lost during world war ii. fewer 10,000 peasants resettled on redistributed land, , peasant poverty remained high. battle land initiative abandoned in 1940.

in 1930, in doctrine of fascism wrote, so-called crisis can settled state action , within orbit of state. tried combat economic recession introducing gold fatherland initiative, encouraging public voluntarily donate gold jewelry government officials in exchange steel wristbands bearing words gold fatherland . rachele mussolini donated wedding ring. collected gold melted down , turned gold bars, distributed national banks.

government control of business part of mussolini s policy planning. 1935, claimed three-quarters of italian businesses under state control. later year, mussolini issued several edicts further control economy, e.g. forcing banks, businesses, , private citizens surrender foreign-issued stock , bond holdings bank of italy. in 1936, imposed price controls. attempted turn italy self-sufficient autarky, instituting high barriers on trade countries except germany.

in 1943, mussolini proposed theory of economic socialization.

propaganda , cult of personality


from 1925, mussolini styled himself il duce (the leader)

mussolini s foremost priority subjugation of minds of italian people , use of propaganda so. lavish cult of personality centered on figure of mussolini promoted regime.

propaganda poster of mussolini caption: excellency benito mussolini, head of government, leader of fascism, , founder of empire...

mussolini pretended incarnate new fascist Übermensch, promoting aesthetics of exasperated machism , cult of personality attributed him quasi-divine capacities. @ various times after 1922, mussolini took on ministries of interior, foreign affairs, colonies, corporations, defense, , public works. held many 7 departments simultaneously, premiership. head of all-powerful fascist party , armed local fascist militia, mvsn or blackshirts , terrorized incipient resistances in cities , provinces. later form ovra, institutionalized secret police carried official state support. in way succeeded in keeping power in own hands , preventing emergence of rival.

mussolini s personal standard

mussolini portrayed himself valiant sportsman, , skilled musician. teachers in schools , universities had swear oath defend fascist regime. newspaper editors chosen mussolini , in possession of certificate of approval fascist party practice journalism. these certificates issued in secret; mussolini skillfully created illusion of free press . trade unions deprived of independence , integrated called corporative system. aim (never achieved), inspired medieval guilds, place italians in various professional organizations or corporations, under clandestine governmental control.

large sums of money spent on highly visible public works , on international prestige projects such blue riband ocean liner ss rex or aeronautical records such world s fastest seaplane, macchi m.c.72, , transatlantic flying boat cruise of italo balbo, greeted fanfare in united states when landed in chicago in 1933.

the principles of doctrine of fascism laid down in article eminent philosopher giovanni gentile , mussolini himself appeared in 1932 in enciclopedia italiana. mussolini portrayed himself intellectual, , historians agree. german historian ernst nolte says: command of contemporary philosophy , political literature @ least great of other contemporary european political leader.

culture


benito mussolini , fascist blackshirt youth in 1935

nationalists in years after world war thought of combating both liberal , domineering institutions created cabinets—such of giovanni giolitti, including traditional schooling. futurism, revolutionary cultural movement serve catalyst fascism, argued school physical courage , patriotism , expressed filippo tommaso marinetti in 1919. marinetti expressed disdain prehistoric , troglodyte ancient greek , latin courses , arguing replacement exercise modelled on of arditi soldiers ( [learning] advance on hands , knees in front of razing machine gun fire; wait open-eyed crossbeam move sideways on heads etc. ). in years first fascist youth wings formed: avanguardia giovanile fascista (fascist youth vanguards) in 1919, , gruppi universitari fascisti (fascist university groups) in 1922.

after march on rome brought mussolini power, fascists started considering ways politicize italian society, accent on education. mussolini assigned former ardito , deputy-secretary education renato ricci task of reorganizing youth moral , physical point of view. ricci sought inspiration robert baden-powell, founder of scouting, meeting him in england, bauhaus artists in germany. opera nazionale balilla created through mussolini s decree of 3 april 1926, , led ricci following eleven years. included children between ages of 8 , 18, grouped balilla , avanguardisti.

according mussolini: fascist education moral, physical, social, , military: aims create complete , harmoniously developed human, fascist 1 according our views . mussolini structured process taking in view emotional side of childhood: childhood , adolescence alike ... cannot fed solely concerts, theories, , abstract teaching. truth aim teach them should appeal foremost fantasy, hearts, , minds .

the educational value set through action , example replace established approaches. fascism opposed version of idealism prevalent rationalism, , used opera nazionale balilla circumvent educational tradition imposing collective , hierarchy, mussolini s own personality cult.

another important constituent of fascist cultural policy roman catholicism. in 1929, concordat vatican signed, ending decades of struggle between italian state , papacy dated 1870 takeover of papal states house of savoy during unification of italy. lateran treaties, italian state @ last recognized roman catholic church, , independence of vatican city recognized italian state, appreciated ecclesiastic hierarchy pope pius xi acclaimed mussolini man of providence .

the 1929 treaty included legal provision whereby italian government protect honor , dignity of pope prosecuting offenders. in 1927, mussolini re-baptized roman catholic priest. after 1929, mussolini, anti-communist doctrines, convinced many catholics actively support him.

foreign policy

in foreign policy, mussolini pragmatic , opportunistic. @ center of vision lay dream forge new roman empire in africa , balkans, vindicating so-called mutilated victory of 1918 imposed plutodemocracies (britain , france) betrayed treaty of london , usurped supposed natural right of italy achieve supremacy in mediterranean basin. however, in 1920s, given germany s weakness, post-war reconstruction problems , question of reparations, situation of europe unfavorable advocate openly revisionist approach treaty of versailles. in 1920s, italy s foreign policy based on traditional idea of italy maintaining equidistant stance major powers in order exercise determinant weight , whatever power italy chose align decisively change balance of power in europe, , price of such alignment support italian ambitions in europe and/or africa. in meantime, since mussolini demography destiny, carried out relentless natalist policies designed increase birthrate; example, in 1924 making advocating or giving information contraception criminal offense, , in 1926 ordering every italian woman double number of children willing bear. mussolini, italy s current population of 40 million insufficient fight major war, , needed increase population @ least 60 million italians before ready war.

in years in power, mussolini operated pragmatic statesman, trying achieve advantages, never @ risk of war britain , france. exception bombardment , occupation of corfu in 1923, following incident in italian military personnel charged league of nations settle boundary dispute between greece , albania assassinated bandits; nationality of bandits remains unclear. @ time of corfu incident, mussolini prepared go war britain, , desperate pleading italian navy leadership, argued italian navy no match british royal navy, persuaded mussolini accept diplomatic solution. in secret speech italian military leadership in january 1925, mussolini argued italy needed win spazio vitale, , such ultimate goal join 2 shores of mediterranean , of indian ocean single italian territory . reflecting obsession demography, mussolini went on italy did not @ present possess sufficient manpower win war against britain and/or france, , time war come sometime in mid-1930s, when mussolini calculated high italian birth rate give italy necessary numbers win. subsequently, mussolini took part in locarno treaties of 1925, guaranteed western borders of germany drawn in 1919. in 1929, mussolini ordered army general staff begin planning aggression against france , yugoslavia. in july 1932, mussolini sent message german defense minister general kurt von schleicher, suggesting anti-french italo-german alliance, offer schleicher responded favorably, albeit condition germany needed rearm first. in late 1932–early 1933, mussolini planned launch surprise attack against both france , yugoslavia begin in august 1933. mussolini s planned war of 1933 stopped when learned french deuxième bureau had broken italian military codes, , french, being forewarned of italian plans, prepared italian attack.

after adolf hitler came power, threatening italian interests in austria , danube basin, mussolini proposed 4 power pact britain, france , germany in 1933. when austrian austro-fascist chancellor engelbert dollfuss dictatorial power assassinated on 25 july 1934 national-socialist supporters, mussolini threatened germany war in event of german invasion of austria. mussolini period of time continued strictly opposing german attempt obtain anschluss , promoted ephemeral stresa front against germany in 1935.

from left right, chamberlain, daladier, hitler, mussolini , italian foreign minister count ciano prepare sign munich agreement

mussolini s foreign policy took dramatic turn after abyssinia crisis of 1935–1936, when italy invaded ethiopia following border incidents occasioned italian inclusions on vaguely drawn border between ethiopia , italian somaliland. historians still divided reasons attack on ethiopia in 1935. italian historians such franco catalano , giorgio rochat argue invasion act of social imperialism, contending great depression had badly damaged mussolini s prestige, , needed foreign war distract public opinion. other historians such pietro pastorelli have argued invasion launched part of expansionist program make italy main power in red sea area , middle east. middle way interpretation offered american historian macgregor knox, argued war started both foreign , domestic reasons, being both part of mussolini s long-range expansionist plans , intended give mussolini foreign policy triumph allow him push fascist system in more radical direction @ home. italy s forces far superior abyssinian forces, in air power, , victorious. emperor haile selassie forced flee country, italy entering capital city, addis ababa proclaim empire may 1936, making ethiopia part of italian east africa.

confident of having been given free hand french premier pierre laval, , british , french forgiving because of opposition hitler s revisionism within stresa front, mussolini received disdain league of nations economic sanctions imposed on italy initiative of london , paris. in mussolini s view, move typically hypocritical action carried out decaying imperial powers intended prevent natural expansion of younger , poorer nations italy. in fact, although france , britain had colonized parts of africa, scramble africa had finished beginning of twentieth century. international mood against colonialist expansion , italy s actions condemned. furthermore, italy criticized use of mustard gas , phosgene against enemies , 0 tolerance approach enemy guerrillas, authorized mussolini. between 1936–1941 during operations pacify ethiopia, italians killed hundreds of thousands of ethiopian civilians, , estimated have killed 7% of ethiopia s total population. mussolini ordered marshal rodolfo graziani initiate , systematically conduct policy of terror , extermination against rebels , population in complicity them. without policy of ten eyes one, cannot heal wound in time . mussolini ordered graziani execute entire male population on age of 18 in 1 town , in 1 district ordered prisoners, accomplices , uncertain have executed part of gradual liquidation of population. believing eastern orthodox church inspiring ethiopians resist, mussolini ordered orthodox priests , monks targeted in revenge guerrilla attacks. mussolini brought in degree law 880, made miscegenation crime punishable 5 years in prison mussolini made absolutely clear did not want soldiers , officials serving in ethiopia ever have sex ethiopian women under circumstances believed multiracial relationships made men less kill ethiopians. mussolini favored policy of brutality partly because believed ethiopians not nation because black people stupid have sense of nationality , therefore guerrillas bandits . other reason because mussolini planning on bringing millions of italian colonists ethiopia , needed kill off of ethiopian population make room italian colonists had done in libya.

the sanctions against italy used mussolini pretext alliance germany. in january 1936, mussolini told german ambassador ulrich von hassell that: if austria in practice become german satellite, have no objection . recognizing austria within german sphere of influence, mussolini had removed principal problem in italo-german relations. american historian barry sullivan wrote hitler-mussolini relationship:

a.j.p. taylor erred in asserting british , french drove mussolini alliance hitler. ironically, mussolini responded germany, britain , france in inverse proportion degree of dishonesty , threat italy: germany, consistently treated italy worse did other 2 countries, rewarded mussolini s friendship; france, offered italy highest level of co-operation , true partnership, rewarded rebuffs , abuse. british policy , mussolini s reaction it, fell between these extremes .

on 25 october 1936, axis declared between italy , germany.

on 11 july 1936, austro-german treaty signed under austria declared german state foreign policy aligned berlin, , allowed pro-nazis enter austrian cabinet. mussolini had applied strong pressure on austrian chancellor kurt schuschnigg sign treaty in order improve relations hitler. after sanctions against italy ended in july 1936, french tried hard revive stresa front, displaying sullivan called humiliating determination retain italy ally . in january 1937, britain signed gentleman s agreement mussolini intended limit italian intervention in spain, , seen british foreign office first step towards creating anglo-italian alliance. in april 1938, britain , italy signed easter accords under britain promised recognise ethiopia italian in exchange italy pulling out of spanish civil war. foreign office understood spanish civil war pulling rome , berlin closer together, , believed if mussolini persuaded disengage spain, return allied camp. mussolini out of spain, british prepared pay such prices such recognising king victor emmanuel iii emperor of ethiopia. american historian barry sullivan wrote both british , french wanted rapprochment italy undo damage caused league of nations sanctions, , mussolini chose ally hitler, rather being forced...

reflecting new pro-german foreign policy on 25 october 1936, mussolini agreed form rome-berlin axis, sanctioned cooperation agreement nazi germany , signed in berlin. furthermore, conquest of ethiopia cost lives of 12,000 italians , 4,000 5,000 libyans, eritreans, , somalis fighting in italian service. mussolini believed conquering ethiopia cost 4 6 billion lire, true costs of invasion proved 33.5 billion lire. economic costs of conquest proved staggering blow italian budget, , retarded italian efforts @ military modernization money mussolini had earmarked military modernization instead spent in conquering ethiopia, helped drive mussolini towards germany. cover huge debts run during ethiopian war, mussolini devalued lire 40% in october 1936. furthermore, costs of occupying ethiopia cost italian treasury 21.1 billion lire between 1936–1940. additionally, italy lose 4,000 men killed fighting in spanish civil war (a number adjusted italy s population proportionally twice american losses in vietnam) while italian intervention in spain cost italy 12 14 billion lire. in years 1938 , 1939, italian government took in 39.9 billion lire in taxes while entire italian gross national product 153 billion lire, meant ethiopian , spanish wars imposed economically crippling costs on italy. 28% of entire military italian budgets between 1934–39 spent on military modernization rest being consumed mussolini s wars, led rapid decline in italian military power. contrast, reflecting far larger size of german economy, total italian military expenditure in 1936 equal 27% of total german military expenditure 1936. greater size of german economy allowed hitler both modernize wehrmacht , intervene in spanish civil war @ same time, option mussolini did not have. between 1935–39, mussolini s wars cost italy equivalent of $500 billion dollars in 1999 values, sum proportionally larger burden given italy such poor country. 1930s time of rapid advances in military technology, , sullivan wrote mussolini picked wrong time fight wars in ethiopia , spain. @ same time italian military falling behind other great powers, full scale arms race had broken out, germany, britain , france spending increasingly large sums of money on militaries 1930s advanced, situation mussolini privately admitted limited italy s ability fight major war on own, , required great power ally compensate increasing italian military backwardness.

from 1936 through 1939, mussolini provided huge amounts of military support nationalists in spanish civil war. active intervention on side of franco further distanced italy france , britain. result, mussolini s relationship adolf hitler became closer, , chose accept german annexation of austria in 1938, followed dismemberment of czechoslovakia in 1939. in may 1938, during hitler s visit italy, mussolini told führer italy , france deadly enemies fighting on opposite sides of barricade concerning spanish civil war, , stresa front dead , buried . @ munich conference in september 1938, mussolini continued pose moderate working european peace, while helping nazi germany annex sudetenland. 1936 axis agreement germany strengthened signing pact of steel on 22 may 1939, bound fascist italy , nazi germany in full military alliance.

members of tigr, slovene anti-fascist group, plotted kill mussolini in kobarid in 1938, attempt unsuccessful.